Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-ray optics is the branch of optics which manipulates X-rays instead of visible light. While lenses for visible light are made of a transparent material with an index of refraction substantially different from 1, there is no equivalent material for X-rays. The only methods of X-ray manipulation, other than simple image modulation, are through reflection, diffraction and interference effects, or by combining a number of lenses into a compound refractive lens. The basic idea is to reflect a beam of X-rays from a surface and to measure the intensity of X-rays reflected in the specular direction (reflected angle equal to incident angle). It has been shown that a reflection off a parabolic mirror...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7403-1
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
X-ray spectroscopy is a gathering name for several spectroscopic techniques for determining the electronic structure of materials by using x-ray excitation. Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn from Uppsala, Sweden (Nobel Prize 1924),REDIRECT Target page name painstakingly produced numerous diamond-ruled glass diffraction gratings for his spectrometers, was one of the pioneers in developing X-ray emission spectroscopy (also called X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy). He measured the X-ray wavelengths of many elements to high precision, using high-energy electrons as excitation source. Intense and wavelength-tunable X-rays are now typically generated with synchrotrons. In a material, the X-rays may suffer an energy loss compared to the incoming beam....
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7505-2
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-ray Fluorescence Holography (XFH) is a relatively new technique that benefits greatly from the coherent high-power X-rays available from synchrotron sources, such as the Japanese SPring-8 facility. Fluorescent X-rays are scattered by atoms in a sample and provide the object wave, which is referenced to non-scattered X-rays. A holographic pattern is recorded by scanning a detector around the sample, which allows researchers to investigate the local 3D structure around a specific element in a sample. It is useful for investigating the effects of irradiation on high temperature superconductors. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7262-4
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! An X-ray tube is a vacuum tube that produces X-rays. They are used in X-ray machines. X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, an ionizing radiation with wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet light. X-ray tubes evolved from experimental Crookes tubes with which X-rays were first discovered in the late 1800s, and the availability of this controllable source of X-rays created the field of radiography, the imaging of opaque objects with penetrating radiation. X-ray tubes are also used in CAT scanners, airport luggage scanners, X-ray crystallography, and for industrial inspection. As with any vacuum tube, there is a cathode, which emits electrons into the vacuum and an anode to collect the...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7640-0
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-ray Pulsar-based Navigation and Timing (XNAV) is a navigation technique whereby the periodic X-ray signals emitted from pulsars are used to determine the location of a spacecraft in deep space. A spacecraft using XNAV compares received X-ray signals with a database of known pulsar frequencies and locations. Similar to GPS, this comparison allows the spacecraft to triangulate its position accurately. Pulsars are highly magnetized, rotating neutron stars that emit a beam of electromagnetic radiation. The observed periods of their pulses range from 1.4 milliseconds to 8.5 seconds. The radiation can only be observed when the beam of emission is pointing towards the Earth. This is called the...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7473-4
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The hard x-ray nanoprobe being built for the Center for Nanoscale Materials (CNM), Argonne National Lab will advance the state of the art by providing a hard X-ray microscopy beamline with the highest spatial resolution in the world. It will provide for fluorescence, diffraction, and transmission imaging with hard X-rays at a spatial resolution of 30 nm or better. A dedicated source, beamline, and optics will form the basis for these capabilities. This unique instrument will not only be key to the specific research areas of the CNM; it will also be of general utility to the broader nanoscience community in studying nanomaterials and nanostructures, particularly for embedded structures....
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7372-0
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! An X-ray interferometer is the analogon to a neutron interferometer. It has been suggested that it may offer the very highest spatial resolution in astronomy,thought the techonoligy is unproven as of 2008. One technique is triple Laue interferometry (LLL interferometry). High Energy X-rays or HEX-rays are very hard X-rays, with 80 keV - 1000 keV typically one order of magnitude higher in energy than conventional X-rays (and well into the gamma-ray energies of over 120 keV). They are produced at modern synchrotron radiation sources such as the beamline ID15 at the ESRF. The main benefit is the deep penetration into matter which makes them a probe for bulk samples in physics and materials science...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7317-1
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-ray notation is a method of labeling atomic orbitals that grew out of X-ray science. It is still traditionally used with most x-ray spectroscopy techniques including AES and XPS. In X-ray notation, every principal quantum number is given a letter associated with it. An atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom. This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. These functions may serve as three-dimensional graph of an electron's likely location. The term may thus refer directly to the physical region defined by...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7394-2
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
The X-ray standing wave (XSW) technique can be used to study the structure of surfaces and interfaces with high spatial resolution and chemical selectivity. Pioneered by B.W. Batterman in the 1960s the availability of synchrotron light has stimulated the application of this interferometric technique to a wide range of problems in surface science. An X-ray interference field created by Bragg reflection provides the length scale against which atomic distances can be measured. The spatial modulation of this field described by the dynamical theory of X-ray diffraction undergoes a pronounced change when the sample is scanned through the Bragg condition. Due to a relative phase variation between the incoming and the reflected beam the nodal...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7521-2
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-radiation is electromagnetic radiation that spans 3 decades in wavelength ~(8 nm - 8 pm), frequency ~(50 PHz - 50 EHz) and energy ~(0.12 - 120 keV). In terms of temperature, 1 eV = 11,604 K. X-rays (0.12 to 120 keV) correspond to 1.39 x 106 (1.39 MK) to 1.39 x 109 K (1.39 GK). From 10 to 0.1 nanometers (nm) (about 0.12 to 12 keV) they are classified as soft X-rays, and from 0.1 nm to 0.01 nm (about 12 to 120 keV) as hard X-rays. Super soft X-rays overlap with EUV and range from as low as ~15 eV up to 0.5 keV. The upper limit results from interstellar absorption of X-rays, especially within the plane of the Milky Way. Analogous to super soft X-rays are the super hard X-rays which overlap with...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7274-7
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-ray Welding is an experimental welding process that uses a high powered X-ray source to provide thermal energy required to weld materials. Many advances in welding technology have resulted from the introduction of new sources of the thermal energy required for localised melting. These advances include the introduction of modern techniques such as gas tungsten arc, gas-metal arc, submerged-arc, electron beam, and laser beam welding processes. However, whilst these processes were able to improve stability, reproducibility, and accuracy of welding, they share a common limitation - the energy does not fully penetrate the material to be welded, resulting in the formation of a melt pool on the...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7663-9
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Дата выхода: июль 2011
Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! An X-ray microscope uses electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects. Unlike visible light, X-rays do not reflect or refract easily, and they are invisible to the human eye. Therefore the basic process of an X-ray microscope is to expose film or use a charge-coupled device (CCD) detector to detect X-rays that pass through the specimen. It is a contrast imaging technology using the difference in absorption of soft x-ray in the water window region by the carbon atom and the oxygen atom. Early X-ray microscopes by Paul Kirkpatrick and Albert Baez used grazing-incidence reflective optics to focus the X-rays, which grazed X-rays off parabolic curved...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7354-6
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Дата выхода: июль 2011
Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! An X-ray image intensifier (XRII), sometimes referred to as a C-Arm or Fluoroscope in medical settings, is a highly complex piece of equipment which uses x-rays and produces a 'live' image feed which is displayed on a TV screen. The term image intensifier refers to a special component of the machine, which allows low intensity x-rays to be amplified, resulting in a smaller dose to the patient. The overall system consists of an x-ray source, input window, input phosphor, photocathode, vacuum and electron optics, output phosphor and output window. It allows for lower x-ray doses to be used on patients by magnifying the intensity produced in the output image, enabling the viewer to easily see the...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7309-6
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The hard spectrum which is available on the BAMline at Berlin's synchrotron BESSY offers the rare opportunity to perform high-resolution X-ray imaging experiments with a partially coherent beam. This thesis work reports on the development of a new tomography system, including Fresnel-propagated imaging, and its application to three specific materials science problems from the fields of engineering materials, biology and earth science: A) 2D and 3D images were recorded from a variety of aluminum-based alloys to characterize coarsening of particle agglomerates (at high solid volume fraction) in liquid solution, as well as rheological properties of semi-solid alloys. B) Dentin is the bulk material of teeth characterized by a quasi-parallel...
ISBN: 978-3-8364-8140-3
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! An X-ray filter is a device to block or filter out some or all wavelengths in the X-ray spectrum. X-ray filters are used to block low-energy X-rays during medical x-ray imaging. Low energy X-rays are more likely to be absorbed by the patient's soft tissues. This causes non-stochasic radioactive effects, and does not contribute to image quality. X-ray filters are used in X-ray crystallography, where crystalline lattice spacings can be determined using Bragg diffraction. The filters allow only a single X-ray wavelength to penetrate through to a target crystal, allowing the resulting scattering to determine the diffraction distance. Данное издание не является...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7247-1
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Microtomography, like tomography, uses x-rays to create cross-sections of a 3D-object that later can be used to recreate a virtual model without destroying the original model. The term micro is used to indicate that the pixel sizes of the cross-sections are in the micrometer range. These pixel sizes have also resulted in the terminology micro-computed tomography, micro-ct, micro-computer tomography, high resolution x-ray tomography, and similar terminologies. All of these names generally represent the same class of instruments. This also means that the machine is much smaller in design compared to the human version and is used to model smaller objects. In general, there are two types of scanner...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7364-5
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative spectroscopic technique that measures the elemental composition, empirical formula, chemical state and electronic state of the elements that exist within a material. XPS spectra are obtained by irradiating a material with a beam of X-rays while simultaneously measuring the kinetic energy (KE) and number of electrons that escape from the top 1 to 10 nm of the material being analyzed. XPS requires ultra high vacuum (UHV) conditions. XPS is a surface chemical analysis technique that can be used to analyze the surface chemistry of a material in its "as received" state, or after some treatment, for example: fracturing, cutting or scraping in...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-7431-4
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Lambert M. Surhone, Mariam T. Tennoe, Susan F. Henssonow
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-Rite, Inc. is a manufacturer of color matching products, located in Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States. Their products include those used for matching paint colors. They also create products that regulate quality in the processing of film and x-rays. X-Rite was incorporated by seven engineers from Lear Siegler in 1958. The company's first product, x-ray marking tape, was introduced in 1961. In 1968 they debuted silver recovery equipment for radiographic film. In 1975, X-Rite introduced its first densitometer for photographic printing use. X-Rite went public in 1986. A year later, X-Rite moved into a new headquarters and production facility in Grandville, Michigan. Данное...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-6155-0
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Дата выхода: июль 2011
Lambert M. Surhone, Mariam T. Tennoe, Susan F. Henssonow
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-Series from 3 is a mobile broadband offering from 3. It is priced like fixed line broadband. X-Series customers are charged a fixed monthly subscription, which in addition to ordinary calling minutes and texts, includes X-Series mobile broadband services, including normal internet access when mobile.Some of these handsets are further improved by HSDPA, which is a high speed internet connection. This comes in handy when using certain X-series services such as Orb (which allows you to stream movies saved on your home PC to your mobile) and the Mobile Broadband function (which allows you to use your mobile phone as a modem and when connected to your laptop via USB/Bluetooth, you have access to...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-6203-8
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Дата выхода: июль 2011
Lambert M. Surhone, Mariam T. Tennoe, Susan F. Henssonow
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The X-Stream Network was the first free ISP based in Britain launched in 1998 and founded by Canadian businessmen Christopher Sukornyk and Gregory Sukornyk, founder of Project Breakout and Wippit founder Paul Myers. The company were the first to offer free internet from 1998 access and then "unmetered" access through 0800 numbers. Trial periods were set up mainly at evenings and weekends to allow 0800 access to the X-Stream network for 1 hour periods. This is the first instance of the development of "unmetered" access to the Internet in the UK. The company subsequently expanded its operations to a number of other European countries and Japan. X-Stream was bought by the French ISP LibertySurf in...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-6287-8
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High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X-wings are fictional starfighters from the original Star Wars trilogy and the expanded universe. They are depicted as the primary interceptor and dogfighter of the Rebel Alliance and the New Republic. The craft has been merchandised as a variety of toys and models and licensed for use in games, novels and comics.
Lambert M. Surhone, Mariam T. Tennoe, Susan F. Henssonow
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X.28 is an ITU-T standard specifying the interface between asynchronous character-mode data terminal equipment (DTE), such as computer terminals, and a Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD) that connects the DTE to a packet switched network such as an X.25 network. Asynchronous serial communication describes an asynchronous, serial transmission protocol in which a start signal is sent prior to each byte, character or code word and a stop signal is sent after each code word. The start signal serves to prepare the receiving mechanism for the reception and registration of a symbol and the stop signal serves to bring the receiving mechanism to rest in preparation for the reception of the next symbol....
ISBN: 978-6-1314-1242-4
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! X3 is a electric multiple unit train used by Arlanda Express on the airport rail link service between Stockholm Central Station and Stockholm-Arlanda Airport in Sweden. Alstom built seven of these four-car units in Birmingham, which were delivered in 1998 and 1999. The X3 is part of the Coradia family, and can reach speeds up to 205 km/h. The trains are painted grey with yellow ends with varying interior colors. The units use standard gauge tracks and are fed electricity at 15 kV 16? Hz AC like the rest of the Swedish railway network, but the trains use separate stations at Arlanda and dedicated tracks at Stockholm C; in both cases, the platforms are higher than at other stations in Sweden,...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-8490-0
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The Xa-180 is a six-wheeled armoured personnel carrier (APC) originally designed for the Finnish Defence Forces. The first version was produced in 1983 and serial production began in 1984. The basic design was based on easy usage, simple basic structure and low cost maintenance. The basic appearance and configuration is similar to most wheeled APCs. In 2005 Estonia purchased a large amount of Xa-180s from Finland. An armoured personnel carrier (APC) is an armoured fighting vehicle designed to transport infantry to the battlefield. APCs are usually armed with only a machine gun although variants carry recoilless rifles, anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs), or mortars. They are not usually designed...
ISBN: 978-6-1305-8694-2
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Lambert M. Surhone, Miriam T. Timpledon, Susan F. Marseken
High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Xacore, established in 2004, is a US based radio audio accessories manufacturer. Xacore is focused on manufacturing audio accessories for use by law enforcement and military with their two-way radios. Xacore is a member of General Dynamics' EDGE and contributes to radio headsets of the future land warrior. Xacore has also supported the United States Marine Corp IISR radio deployment by supplying 70,000 IISR Speaker Microphones and supports SWAT teams with their SWAT product line. New for 2010 is Xacore's DSP in-ear military headset branded Threat4 and geared towards tactical radio users, which include those who use MBITR, PRC, TOCNET, VIC. Данное издание не является...
ISBN: 978-6-1311-4747-0
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Дата выхода: июль 2011