This book presents some models for spatially-structured predator-prey populations. It addresses the issues of spatial structure and predator-prey interactions, and studies optimal harvesting for the populations. These issues are very important in the development of prudent management for the exploitations of natural resources. The book explores two common features of biological populations simultaneously: biological interactions and spatial structure. It includes relevant features that occur in most commercial marine populations, that is, predator-prey interactions, and takes into account the existence of the exchange of individuals between subpopulations, which is a common phenomenon in nature. The existence of this phenomenon is...

ISBN: 978-3-8433-8837-5
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a natural transformation provides a way of transforming one functor into another while respecting the internal structure (i.e. the composition of morphisms) of the categories involved. Hence, a natural transformation can be considered to be a "morphism of functors". Indeed this intuition can be formalized to define so-called functor categories. Natural transformations are, after categories and functors, one of the most basic notions of category theory and consequently appear in the majority of its applications. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии...

ISBN: 978-6-1312-8701-5
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In mathematics, there are two conventions for the set of natural numbers: it is either the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, ...} according to the traditional definition or the set of non-negative integers {0, 1, 2, ...} according to a definition first appearing in the nineteenth century. Natural numbers have two main purposes: counting ("there are 6 coins on the table") and ordering ("this is the 3rd largest city in the country"). These purposes are related to the linguistic notions of cardinal and ordinal numbers, respectively. (See English numerals.) A more recent notion is that of a nominal number, which is used only for naming. Properties of the natural numbers related to divisibility,...

ISBN: 978-6-1311-5846-9
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In mathematics, there are two conventions for the set of natural numbers: it is either the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, ...} according to the traditional definition or the set of non-negative integers {0, 1, 2, ...} according to a definition first appearing in the nineteenth century. Natural numbers have two main purposes: counting ("there are 6 coins on the table") and ordering ("this is the 3rd largest city in the country"). These purposes are related to the linguistic notions of cardinal and ordinal numbers, respectively. A more recent notion is that of a nominal number, which is used only for naming. Данное издание не является оригинальным....

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3103-0
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Natural computing, also called Natural computation, is a terminology introduced to encompass three classes of methods: 1) those that take inspiration from nature for the development of novel problem-solving techniques; 2) those that are based on the use of computers to synthesize natural phenomena; and 3) those that employ natural materials (e.g., molecules) to compute. The main fields of research that compose these three branches are artificial neural networks, evolutionary algorithms, swarm intelligence, artificial immune systems, fractal geometry, artificial life, DNA computing, and quantum computing, among others. Данное издание не является оригинальным....

ISBN: 978-6-1312-9918-6
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a natural transformation provides a way of transforming one functor into another while respecting the internal structure (i.e. the composition of morphisms) of the categories involved. Hence, a natural transformation can be considered to be a "morphism of functors". Indeed this intuition can be formalized to define so-called functor categories. Natural transformations are, after categories and functors, one of the most basic notions of category theory and consequently appear in the majority of its applications. If F and G are functors between the categories C and D, then a natural transformation ? from F to G associates to every object X in C a...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3107-8
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The nautical mile is a unit of length corresponding approximately to one minute of arc of latitude along any meridian. It is a non-SI unit (although accepted for use in the SI by the BIPM) used especially by navigators in the shipping and aviation industries,[1] and also in polar exploration. It is commonly used in international law and treaties, especially regarding the limits of territorial waters. It developed from the sea mile and the related geographical mile. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии принт-он-деманд после получения заказа.

ISBN: 978-6-1303-1452-1
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! NDDO stands for neglect of diatomic differential overlap. The formalism was first introduced by John Pople and it is now the basis of most successful semiempirical methods. While INDO added all one-centre two electron integrals to the CNDO/2 formalism, NDDO adds all two centre integrals for repulsion between a charge distribution on one centre and a charge distribution on another centre. Otherwise the zero-differential overlap approximation is used. A common software program is MOPAC (Molecular Orbital PACkage). MNDO, or Modified Neglect of Differential Overlap is a semi-empirical method for the quantum calculation of molecular electronic structure in computational chemistry. It is based on the...

ISBN: 978-6-1310-5092-3
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! NE vs. NC is a two-disc compilation released by the Redemption Recording Co. in 2002. Disc one features seventeen bands from the state of Nebraska and disc two features seventeen bands from the state of North Carolina. The idea was formed by Redemption president Ryan Kuper, who was born in Council Bluffs, IA and later moved to Los Angeles, CA. It was initially developed by Mark Edel for Fermilab and released under a very restrictive licence, but today it is distributed under the less restrictive GNU General Public License. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии принт-он-деманд после...

ISBN: 978-6-1312-6224-1
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In geometry, a near-miss Johnson solid is a strictly convex polyhedron, where every face is a regular or nearly regular polygon, and excluding the 5 Platonic solids, the 13 Archimedean solids, the infinite set of prisms, the infinite set of antiprisms, and the 92 Johnson solids. The set of near-misses is not exactly defined, but can be loosely defined as convex polyhedra that can be approximately constructed from rigid regular polygon faces as a physical model. Because of the "fuzziness" of this definition, the exact number of near-misses is not known. The near-misses, like all convex polyhedra made of regular polygons, have a countably infinite set of vertex figures that they can use, defined...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3113-9
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

This work is delineating of various aspects of near-rings and near-ring groups dealing with annihilators of different types and finiteness conditions. The authors experience some broad-viewed aspects through such a structure with affluent potentialities for enriching the notions with rational extension of a categorical domain. Fascinating non-associative character of some algebraic structures creeps into the deliberations and thus reveals pleasant and striking flavor of this piece of asymmetric study of algebra. Goldie characters of such types of algebraic structures help one in dealing with many types of problems including singularity and non-singularity notions in broader aspects. The condition imposed on the singular subgroups...

ISBN: 978-3-6391-8642-0
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Nearest-neighbor interpolation (also known as proximal interpolation or point sampling in some contexts) is a simple method of multivariate interpolation in 1 or more dimensions. Interpolation is the problem of approximating the value for a non-given point in some space, when given some values of points around that point. The nearest neighbor algorithm simply selects the value of the nearest point, and does not consider the values of other neighboring points at all, yielding a piecewise-constant interpolant. The algorithm is very simple to implement, and is commonly used (usually along with mipmapping) in real-time 3D rendering to select color values for a textured surface. Данное...

ISBN: 978-6-1312-8719-0
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Nearest neighbor search (NNS), also known as proximity search, similarity search or closest point search, is an optimization problem for finding closest points in metric spaces. The problem is: given a set S of points in a metric space M and a query point q ? M, find the closest point in S to q. In many cases, M is taken to be d-dimensional Euclidean space and distance is measured by Euclidean distance or Manhattan distance. Donald Knuth in vol. 3 of The Art of Computer Programming (1973) called it the post-office problem, referring to an application of assigning a residence to the nearest post office. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-1688-4
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In logic, the words necessity and sufficiency refer to the implicational relationships between statements. The assertion that one statement is a necessary and sufficient condition of another means that the former statement is true if and only if the latter is true. * A necessary condition of a statement must be satisfied for the statement to be true. Formally, a statement P is a necessary condition of a statement Q if Q implies P. For example, the ability to breathe is necessary to a human's survival. Likewise, for the whole numbers greater than two, being odd is necessary to being prime, since two is the only whole number that is both even and prime. Данное издание не...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3117-7
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In logic and mathematics, negation (usually expressed by 'not') is an operation on propositions. For example, in classical logic negation is normally interpreted by the truth function that takes truth to falsity and vice versa. In intuitionistic logic, according to the Brouwer-Heyting-Kolmogorov interpretation, the negation of a proposition P is the proposition whose proofs are the refutations of P. Intuitively, the negation of a proposition holds when that proposition is false. Classical negation is an operation on one logical value, typically the value of a proposition, that produces a value of true when its operand is false and a value of false when its operand is true. So, if statement A is...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3019-4
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The Negated AND, NO AND or NAND gate is the opposite of the digital AND gate, and behaves in a manner that corresponds to the opposite of AND gate, as shown in the truth table on the left. A LOW output results only if both the inputs to the gate are HIGH. If one or both inputs are LOW, a HIGH output results. The NAND gate is a universal gate in the sense that any boolean function can be implemented by NAND gates. Digital systems employing certain logic circuits take advantage of NAND's functional completeness. In complicated logical expressions, normally written in terms of other logic functions such as AND, OR, and NOT, writing these in terms of NAND saves on cost, because implementing such...

ISBN: 978-6-1341-0150-9
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In probability and statistics the negative binomial distribution is a discrete probability distribution. It arises as the probability distribution of the number of failures in a sequence of Bernoulli trials needed to get a specified number of successes. If one throws a die repeatedly until the third time a "1" appears, then the probability distribution of the number of non-"1"s that appear before the third "1" is a negative binomial distribution. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии принт-он-деманд после получения заказа.

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3316-4
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The sites (locations) of the cancer may be independent, but there may be positive dependencies of the type of cancer for a given location (site). For example, localized exposure to radiation implies that elevated level of one type of cancer (at a given location) may indicate higher level of another cancer type at the same location. The Negative Multinomial distribution may be used to model the sites cancer rates and help measure some of the cancer type dependencies within each location. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии принт-он-деманд после получения заказа.

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3129-0
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In probability and statistics the negative binomial distribution (including the Pascal distribution or Polya distribution) is a discrete probability distribution. It arises as the probability distribution of the number of failures in a sequence of Bernoulli trials needed to get a specified (non-random) number of successes. If one throws a die repeatedly until the third time a "1" appears, then the probability distribution of the number of non-"1"s that appear before the third "1" is a negative binomial distribution. The Pascal distribution and Polya distribution are special cases of the negative binomial. There is a convention among engineers, climatologists, and others to reserve "negative...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3127-6
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Being negative or non-negative is a property of a number which is real, or a member of a subset of real numbers such as rational and integer numbers. A negative number is one that is less than zero, such as ?{sqrt{2}}, ?1.414, ?1. A positive number (e.g., positive real number, positive rational number, positive integer) is one that is greater than zero, such as {sqrt{2}}, 1.414, 1. Zero itself is neither positive nor negative. The non-negative numbers are the numbers that are not negative (they are positive or zero). The non-positive numbers are the numbers that are not positive (they are negative or zero). In the context of complex numbers, positive implies real, but for clarity one may say...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3120-7
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! A negative base (or negative radix) may be used to construct a non-standard positional numeral system. Like other place-value systems, each position holds multiples of the appropriate power of the system's base; but that base is negative—that is to say, the base scriptstyle b is equal to scriptstyle -r for some natural number scriptstyle r (r ? 2). Negative-base systems can accommodate all the same numbers as standard place-value systems, but both positive and negative numbers are represented without the use of a minus sign (or, in computer representation, a sign bit); this advantage is countered by an increased complexity of arithmetic operations. The need to store the "information" normally...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3121-4
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The concept of negligibility can find its trace back to sound models of analysis. Though the concepts of "continuity" and "infinitesimal" became important in mathematics during Newton and Leibniz's time, they were not well-defined until late 1810s. The first reasonably rigorous definition of continuity in mathematical analysis was due to Bernard Bolzano, who wrote in 1817 the modern definition of continuity. Lately Cauchy, Weierstrass and Heine also defined as follows (with all numbers in the real number domain Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии принт-он-деманд после...

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3480-2
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles!In mathematics, a negligible set is a set that is small enough that it can be ignored for some purpose. As common examples, finite sets can be ignored when studying the limit of a sequence, and null sets can be ignored when studying the integral of a measurable function. Negligible sets define several useful concepts that can be applied in various situations, such as truth almost everywhere. In order for these to work, it is generally only necessary that the negligible sets form an ideal; that is, that the empty set be negligible, the union of two negligible sets be negligible, and any subset of a negligible set be negligible. For some purposes, we also need this ideal to be a sigma-ideal, so...

ISBN: 978-6-1311-1745-9
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! In graph theory, an adjacent vertex of a vertex v in a graph is a vertex that is connected to v by an edge. The neighbourhood of a vertex v in a graph G is the induced subgraph of G consisting of all vertices adjacent to v and all edges connecting two such vertices. For example, the image shows a graph of 6 vertices and 7 edges. Vertex 5 is adjacent to vertices 1, 2, and 4 but it is not adjacent to 3 and 6. The neighbourhood of vertex 5 is the graph with three vertices, 1, 2, and 4, and one edge connecting vertices 1 and 2. Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии принт-он-деманд...

ISBN: 978-6-1311-5954-1
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011

High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The Nelder-Mead method or downhill simplex method or amoeba method is a commonly used nonlinear optimization technique, which is a well-defined numerical method for twice differentiable and unimodal problems. However, the Nelder-Mead technique is only a heuristic, since it can converge to non-stationary points on problems that can be solved by alternative methods. The Nelder-Mead technique was proposed by John Nelder Данное издание не является оригинальным. Книга печатается по технологии принт-он-деманд после получения заказа.

ISBN: 978-6-1303-3138-2
Издательство: Книга по требованию
Дата выхода: июль 2011